Towards Independence 1935–47

Withdrawal of Civil Disobedience Movement (1934)
Gandhi withdrew the movement due to escalating violence and lack of immediate success.
The Congress leadership deliberated on future strategies.

Emergence of Three Distinct Strategies
Constructive Work on Gandhian Lines:
– Advocated by those who believed in building grassroots support through social reforms.
– Focused on education, khadi promotion, and upliftment of rural areas.
Entry into Legislative Councils:
– Led by MA Ansari, Asaf Ali, Bhulabhai Desai, S. Satyamurthy.
– Believed in participating in governance to influence policy from within.
Continuation of Mass Struggle:
– Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose advocated for a more radical approach.
– Criticized legislative participation as a "surrender of ideals".
– Sought to incorporate class struggle into the anti-imperialist movement.

Gandhi's Perspective
Believed in alternating periods of active resistance and constructive work.
Argued that continuous struggle could lead to fatigue among the masses.
Advocated for giving the British government time to respond to Indian demands.

Nehru's Perspective
Favored a continuous confrontation with imperialism until victory.
Criticized Gandhi's approach as too cautious.
Emphasized that real power cannot be won through partial measures.

Avoiding a Split in Congress
Despite disagreements, leaders sought to maintain unity within the party.
Gandhi agreed to support those wishing to enter councils.

• Established to contest elections under the Congress banner.

• Stepped down from Congress to "serve it better in thought, word, and deed".

Election Victory (November 1934)
Congress won 45 out of 75 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly.

Government of India Act 1935
Enacted in August 1935.
Widely condemned by Indian leaders for falling short of demands.
Congress demanded a constituent assembly elected by adult franchise.

Provincial Elections (1937)
Congress decided to contest elections despite internal differences.
Elections held in 11 provinces.
Congress Victory:
– Won 716 out of 1,161 contested seats.
– Formed ministries in Madras, United Provinces, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, Bombay, and later NWFP.
Muslim League performed poorly, highlighting limited support.

• Congress ministries governed for 28 months.
• Gandhi's Advice: Urged ministers to hold office "lightly and not tightly".

Achievements
Civil Liberties:
– Repealed emergency laws.
– Lifted bans on organizations like Hindustan Seva Dal.
– Released political prisoners.
Agricultural Reforms:
– Enacted laws on land tenure, debt relief, and rent reduction.
– Faced challenges due to financial constraints and opposition from landlords.
Labor Reforms:
– Promoted harmony between labor and capital.
– Introduced measures for compulsory arbitration before strikes.
– Criticized for suppressing militant trade unions.
Social Welfare:
– Implemented prohibition in certain areas.
– Emphasized education and khadi promotion.
– Established the National Planning Committee under Nehru.

Haripura Session (1938)
Subhas Chandra Bose elected Congress President.
Emphasized economic planning and support for agitations in princely states.

Differences with Gandhi
Disagreed on methods to achieve independence and economic policies.
Bose favored a more aggressive stance against the British.

• Bose re-elected but faced opposition from the Gandhi faction.
• Gandhi-backed candidate: Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
• Despite winning, Bose resigned due to lack of support.

Formation of Forward Bloc (May 1939)
Bose established the Forward Bloc within Congress.
Later expelled from Congress positions for violating party discipline.

Britain Declares War on Germany (September 1939)
India declared a belligerent without consultation.

Congress Reaction
Objected to unilateral decision.
Demanded assurances for independence and formation of a constituent assembly.
Viceroy Linlithgow refused substantive concessions.

• As a protest against British policies.

• Gandhi: Proposed unconditional support against fascism.
• Bose and Socialists: Wanted to exploit the situation for independence.
• Nehru: Opposed both fascism and imperialism; advocated for non-cooperation without taking advantage of British difficulties.

Linlithgow's Statement
Proposed expansion of Viceroy's Executive Council.
Promised a post-war constituent assembly.
Assured Dominion Status after the war.

• Congress: Rejected due to lack of immediate transfer of power and giving minorities veto power.
• Muslim League: Initially accepted, later rejected over clarification on Pakistan.
• Result: Offer failed to satisfy major Indian political groups.

Gandhi's Strategy
Launched to affirm the right to free speech against war.
Chose Vinoba Bhave as the first satyagrahi.
Jawaharlal Nehru followed.
Over 25,000 satyagrahis participated.

Outcome
Movement lacked mass appeal.
Suspended by Gandhi in December 1940.

Context
Japanese advancement in Southeast Asia posed a threat to India.
Allied Powers pressured Britain to gain Indian support.

Stafford Cripps' Proposals
Dominion Status after the war.
Formation of a constituent assembly with elected representatives.
Right of provinces to opt out of the Indian Union.
British control over defense during the war.

• Congress: Rejected due to provision allowing provinces to secede and lack of immediate self-governance.
• Muslim League: Opposed as it didn't explicitly guarantee Pakistan.
• Outcome: Mission failed to achieve consensus.

• August 8, 1942: Gandhi delivered the "Do or Die" speech in Bombay.
• All India Congress Committee (AICC) demanded immediate British withdrawal.

• Government Servants: Continue work but declare allegiance to Congress.
• Soldiers: Stay in ranks but refuse to fire on compatriots.
• Students: Leave educational institutions if they could.
• Peasants: Withhold rent from pro-British landlords.
• Princely States: Support rulers only if they opposed British rule.

Government Response
Arrested Gandhi and other leaders within hours.
Declared Congress an unlawful association.

• Leaderless movement spread rapidly.
• Mass Protests: Strikes, demonstrations, sabotage of communication lines.
• Underground Activities:
• – Key Leaders: Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta.
• – Underground Radio: Broadcasted messages to inspire resistance.
• Parallel Governments:
• – Ballia: Led by Chittu Pandey.
• – Tamluk: Jatiya Sarkar operated (1942-44).
• – Satara: Prati Sarkar under Y.B. Chavan and Nana Patil (1943-45).

• Youth: At the forefront of protests and revolutionary activities.

• Prominent Figures: Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, Usha Mehta.
• Actively involved in organizing protests and underground work.

Workers
Organized strikes despite severe repression.

• Participated widely, targeting symbols of British authority.
• Notably absent was violence against landlords.

Government Officials
Lower-level officials showed sympathy, leading to erosion of government control.

• Many sheltered activists; no significant communal clashes occurred.

Communist Party of India (CPI)
Did not participate as the Soviet Union was allied with Britain against Germany.

Muslim League
Opposed the movement fearing it would hinder the creation of Pakistan.

• Boycotted the movement.

• Showed minimal response, largely remaining loyal to the British.

C. Rajagopalachari Formula (1944)
Proposed that if Muslims supported independence, a plebiscite would determine partition in Muslim-majority areas.
Jinnah's Response:
– Rejected the plan, insisting only Muslims should vote in the plebiscite.

• Negotiated by Bhulabhai Desai (Congress) and Liaqat Ali Khan (Muslim League).
• Proposed equal representation in an interim government.
• Outcome: No agreement reached, but set a precedent for parity between Congress and League.

Wavell Plan
Proposed reconstitution of the Viceroy's Executive Council with equal representation for Caste Hindus and Muslims.
Aimed to include all Indian parties in governance.

Shimla Conference
Convened to discuss the plan.
Deadlock over Muslim League's demand to be the sole representative of Muslims.
Congress objected, leading to the failure of talks.

• Bose's faction after resigning from Congress presidency.

Activities Abroad
Escaped to Germany via Afghanistan.
Met with Hitler to seek support against the British.
Formed the "Freedom Army" with Indian POWs in Europe.

Formation of INA in Southeast Asia
First Phase:
– Initiated by Captain Mohan Singh with Japanese support.
– Faced setbacks due to differences with Japanese authorities.
Second Phase:
– Bose took command from Rash Behari Bose in Singapore (1943).
– Proclaimed the Provisional Government of Free India.
– INA included the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, an all-women combat force.

Military Campaigns
Captured Andaman and Nicobar Islands, renaming them Shaheed and Swaraj.
Advanced to Manipur, hoisting the flag in Moirang (April 1944).
Challenges:
– INA faced discrimination and supply issues from the Japanese.
– Retreat after Japanese defeats in 1944.

• Despite military setbacks, the INA's efforts inspired nationalist sentiments.
• Trials of INA Soldiers:
• – British plans to court-martial INA soldiers led to widespread protests.
• – United different sections of Indian society in support of the INA.

The period from 1934 to 1945 was marked by significant developments in India's struggle for independence.
Internal Debates within Congress highlighted differing strategies but ultimately aimed for a common goal.
World War II created both challenges and opportunities for the independence movement.
The Quit India Movement demonstrated the depth of anti-colonial sentiment across diverse sections of Indian society.

Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA added a new dimension to the freedom struggle, emphasizing armed resistance.
Despite setbacks, these events collectively weakened British control and set the stage for India's independence in 1947.