Socio-Religious Reform

• Emergence of Social Reforms: In the early 19th century, enlightened Indians sought to reform Indian society due to prevailing religious and social ills like superstitions, infanticide, child marriage, polygamy, sati, casteism, and other social vices.
• Reaction to British Rule: The portrayal of British culture as superior led to a desire to reinvigorate traditional Indian culture and institutions.
• Awareness of Weaknesses: Encounters with modern Western culture and colonization highlighted weaknesses in indigenous culture and social structures.
• Diverse Responses: While some, like the Derozians, developed a revulsion for indigenous culture, there was a shared belief in the need to reform social and religious life.

• Indian Intelligentsia: Led by the newly emerging middle class and educated intellectuals (both Western-educated and traditionally educated), including professionals in government service, law, education, journalism, and medicine.
• Common Ideological Threads: Movements shared ideologies centered around rationalism, religious universalism, and humanism.

Principle of Causality: Reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy argued that truth must be demonstrable.
Akshay Kumar Dutt proclaimed "rationalism is our only preceptor", understanding phenomena through mechanical processes.
Swami Vivekananda insisted religion justify itself using scientific methods.
References to past scriptures (e.g., Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar citing Vedic texts for widow remarriage) were used as aids, not for complete revival or rupture from tradition.

• Underlying Unity of Religions: Rammohan Roy viewed different religions as national embodiments of universal theism.
• Syed Ahmed Khan believed all prophets shared the same din (faith), despite national differences.
• Emphasis on moral values and equal worth of all individuals highlighted the humanistic aspect of reforms.

• Shift from Religious to Secular Focus: Initially targeting religious aspects, movements gradually acquired a secular character.
• Leadership Transition: From individual reformers like Jyotiba Phule, Gopalhari Deshmukh, KT Telang, BM Malabari, DK Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, EV Ramaswami Naicker, Ambedkar, to organizations like Social Conference, Servants of India Society, and Christian missionaries.
• National Movement's Role: From the 20th century onwards, the national movement provided leadership for social reform.

• Oppression of Women: In 19th century India, women faced denial of education, inability to inherit property, and were subjected to purdah, early marriage, sati, and prohibition of widow remarriage.
• Identity Issues: Women lacked independent identity, seen primarily as wives and mothers.
• Reform Efforts: Reformers worked tirelessly for women's betterment, leading to reformative laws.

• Sati: Practice where a widow immolated herself on her husband's pyre.
• – Rammohan Roy led agitation against it.
• – Declared illegal in 1829 through government regulation.

• Infanticide: Intentional killing of infants, mainly females.
• – Declared illegal through Bengal Regulations of 1795 and 1804.
• – Act of 1870 mandated birth registration and verification to prevent infanticide.

• Legalization: Widow Remarriage Act of 1856, due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's efforts.

Advocacy
Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded Widow Remarriage Association in Bombay.
Karsondas Mulji started Satya Prakash advocating widow remarriage.
DK Karve married a widow (1893), opened a widows' home in Poona.

• Other Leaders: BM Malabari, Narmad, MG Ranade, Veerasalingam Pantulu.

• Historical Roots: Originated in Vedic times, became prevalent with Dharmasutra and Dharmashastra.
• Reevaluation: European ideas prompted critique of child marriage.
• BM Malabari led agitation against it.
• Age of Consent Act (1891): Prohibited marriage of girls below 12 years.
• Sarda Act (1930): Raised marriageable age to 18 for boys, 14 for girls.

Early Initiatives
Calcutta Female Juvenile Society (1819) by Christian missionaries.
Bethune School founded by JED Bethune.

Contributions
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar associated with numerous girls' schools.
Charles Wood's Despatch (1854) emphasized female education.
In Maharashtra, Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji promoted girls' schools.
Maharshi DK Karve established Indian Women's University (1916).
Lady Hardinge Medical College founded in 1916.

• Prevalence of Caste System: Dalits faced severe discrimination in education, land ownership, profession, and social rights.

British Influence: Unintentionally weakened caste structures through
Creation of private property and free land sale.
Urbanization, modern commerce, and new transportation.
Introduction of equality before law.
Opening administrative services to all castes.

Indigenous Efforts
Organizations like Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Theosophists, and individuals like Jyotiba Phule worked towards caste reform.
Arya Samaj promoted a merit-based Chaturvarna system.
Jyotiba Phule emphasized education for lower castes and girls, opened schools.

Babasaheb Ambedkar condemned caste hierarchy, advocating for 'Annihilation of Caste'.
Founded Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924): Motto 'Educate, Agitate and Organise'.
Led Mahad Satyagraha (1927) to allow Dalits access to public water.
Burned the Manusmriti as a protest.
Formed All India Scheduled Castes Federation (1942).

Gandhi's Efforts
Founded All India Anti Untouchability League (1932), later Harijan Sevak Sangh.
Worked for Dalits' access to public places.
Promoted inter-dining and inter-caste marriages.

Congress Initiatives
Introduced free education for Dalits in provinces (post-1937).

Southern Movements
Self-Respect Movement by EV Ramaswamy Naicker.
Efforts of Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala.

• Reformist Movements: Aimed at modernizing society without heavy reliance on past traditions.
• – Examples: Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Aligarh Movement.

• Revivalist Movements: Sought to revive and purify ancient traditions.
• – Examples: Arya Samaj, Deoband Movement.

Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj
Advocated monotheism, opposed idolatry and social evils.
Founded Atmiya Sabha (1814) and Brahmo Samaj (1828).
Worked against sati, promoted women's rights and education.
Published journals: Sambad Kaumudi, Mirat-Ul-Akhbar.

Debendranath Tagore
Joined Brahmo Samaj (1842), revitalized it.
Founded Tattwabodhini Sabha (1839), propagated Vedanta.
Opposed Christian missionary criticism.
Supported social reforms like widow remarriage, women's education.

• Expanded Brahmo Samaj beyond Bengal.
• Established 'Bharatvarshiya Brahmo Samaj' (1866).
• Controversies led to formation of Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (1878).

Henry Vivian Derozio and Young Bengal
Promoted free thinking, rationalism, inspired by French Revolution.
Led to Young Bengal Movement, advocating for social and political reforms.
Despite progressive ideas, failed to connect with the masses.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Simplified Bengali prose, reformed Sanskrit education.
Campaigned for widow remarriage, leading to its legalization (1856).
Promoted women's education, associated with 35 girls' schools.

Paramhansa Mandali
Established (1849) by Durgaram Mehtaji, Dadoba Pandurang.
Promoted monotheism, women's education, widow remarriage, broke caste rules.

Prarthana Samaj
Founded (1867) by Dadoba and Atmaram Pandurang.
Influenced by Keshab Chandra Sen, leaders included MG Ranade, RG Bhandarkar.
Focused on social and cultural reforms over religious reform.

Balshastri Jambhekar
Known as 'Father of Marathi Journalism'.
Started Darpan (1832), advocated for social awareness.

Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodhak Samaj
Criticized caste oppression, Brahmanical dominance.
Founded Satyashodhak Samaj (1873), promoted education for lower castes and girls.
Opened schools, homes for widows.

Gopalhari Deshmukh ('Lokahitawadi')
Advocated rational, secular societal reorganization.
Wrote in Prabhakar, started Hitechu, contributed to Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
Educationist, co-founded Deccan Education Society, Fergusson College.
Edited Kesari, started Sudharak advocating against untouchability, caste system.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Servants of India Society
Founded Servants of India Society (1905) to train workers for national service.
Published Hitavada (1911).

Narayan Malhar Joshi and Social Service League
Founded Social Service League (1911) to alleviate mass suffering.
Co-founded All India Trade Union Congress (1920).

Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj
Founded Arya Samaj (1875), advocated 'Back to the Vedas'.
Opposed idolatry, untouchability, child marriage.
Promoted education through Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools.
Initiated Shuddhi Movement to reconvert people to Hinduism.

BM Malabari and Seva Sadan
Parsi reformer, founded Seva Sadan (1908).
Campaigned against child marriage, leading to Age of Consent Act (1891).

SNDP Movement
Led by Sree Narayana Guru for Ezhavas in Kerala.
Established Sivalinga at Aruvippuram (1888).
Promoted equality, access to education, public services.

Justice Movement
Formed South Indian Liberal Federation (1916) by CN Mudaliar, TM Nair, P Tyagaraja.
Aimed for better representation of non-Brahmins.
Led to Dravidian Movement.

Periyar and Self-Respect Movement
EV Ramaswamy Naicker started Self-Respect Movement (1925).
Opposed Brahmanical dominance, promoted rationalism, equality.
Advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu.

Temple Entry Movements
Vaikom Satyagraha (1924) in Kerala led by KP Kesava.
Guruvayur Satyagraha (1931) led by K Kelappan, Subramaniyam Tirumambu.
Demanded Dalits' access to temples.

Indian Social Conference
Founded (1887) by MG Ranade, Raghunath Rao.
Social reform wing of INC, opposed polygamy, promoted inter-caste marriages, launched Pledge Movement against child marriage.

Wahabi/Waliullah Movement
Inspired by Abdul Wahab and Shah Walliullah.
Called for return to pure Islam, reconciliation among Muslim jurisprudence schools.
Later led by Syed Ahmed Barelvi, became politically active against British.

Titu Mir's Movement
Titu Mir adopted Wahhabism, led Muslim peasants against landlords and British planters in Bengal.

Faraizi Movement
Founded by Haji Shariatullah (1818), emphasized religious duties (Faraiz).
Under Dadu Mian, became revolutionary against Zamindars and British.

Ahmadiyya Movement
Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908), claimed to be the Promised Mahdi and Messiah.
Aimed for Mohammedan Renaissance, universal religion, morality, peace, justice.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh Movement
Social reformer, educationist, loyal to British.
Founded Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental College (1875), later Aligarh Muslim University.
Published Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq.
Advocated for Western education, opposed purdah, polygamy.
Later proposed 'Two Nation Theory', pioneering Muslim nationalism.

Deoband Movement
Founded Darul Uloom in Deoband (1866).
Sought to spread pure teachings of Quran and Hadith.
Opposed British rule, supported national unity.

Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha
Founded (1851) by progressive Parsis like Dadabhai Naoroji.
Aimed to reform Zoroastrianism, promoted women's rights.

Singh Sabha Movement
Launched (1873) to revitalize Sikhism, counter proselytization.
Established Khalsa schools, promoted education.

Akali Movement
Offshoot of Singh Sabha, sought control of Gurudwaras from corrupt mahants.
Led to Sikh Gurudwaras Act (1922), formation of Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC).

Founded (1875) by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott in New York.
Moved headquarters to Adyar, Madras (1882).
Believed in incarnation, Karma, universal brotherhood.
Influenced by Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga.
Annie Besant became president (1907), promoted Indian culture, self-respect among Indians.

Positive Aspects
Avoided downright Westernization, aimed for modernization.
Used scriptures to support reforms (e.g., Vidyasagar citing Vedas for widow remarriage).

Limitations
Had a narrow social base, mostly educated urban middle class.
Heightened religious consciousness, later contributing to communalism.
Selectively highlighted past, undermining aspects like art, architecture, literature, science, technology.