The Gandhian Era 1915–1934

Prelude to Gandhi and the Rise of Indian Nationalism

• Indian Support in World War I: Indian leaders of various ideologies supported the British during World War I (1914-1918), believing it would lead to political concessions post-war.
• Massive Contribution: India contributed over one million troops and significant financial resources.
• Post-War Economic Hardships:
• Industries faced rising production costs amid a recession.
• Workers and Artisans suffered from unemployment and high prices.
• Peasants endured high taxation and deepening poverty.
• Educated Urban Class grappled with unemployment and growing awareness of British racism.
• Charged Atmosphere: The entire nation felt impatient and disillusioned due to unmet expectations.

Challenging Colonial Myths

• Myth of British Invincibility: The British rule rested on two myths:
• British Invincibility.
• Indian Incapacity for Self-Rule.
• Erosion of Myths
• World War I Propaganda: Both Allied and Central Powers exposed each other's colonial atrocities.
• Returning Soldiers: Indian soldiers shared experiences that diminished the fear of British might.
• Russian Revolution (1917): The success of the Bolsheviks demonstrated that masses could overthrow powerful regimes.

Failed British Promises and Gandhi's Emergence

• Broken Promises: Despite expectations, the British offered only the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act, 1919), which were seen as inadequate.
• Congress Reaction: Declared the reforms "disappointing" and "unsatisfactory"; Tilak called it a "sunless dawn".
• Rowlatt Act (1919)
• Repressive Measures: Allowed arrests without warrant, indefinite detention without trial, and trial without jury.
• Public Outrage: Seen as a betrayal, leading to widespread anger.
• Gandhi's Entry: In this charged environment, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi emerged as a new leader offering hope.

Gandhi's Background and Early Activism

• Early Life
• Birth: Born in 1869 in Porbandar, Gujarat.
• Education: Studied law in England.
• South Africa (1893-1914)
• Experience with Racism: Shocked by blatant racial discrimination against Indians.
• Indian Community:
• Indentured Laborers: Mainly from South India, working on sugar plantations.
• Merchants: Mainly Memon Muslims.
• Ex-Indentured Laborers: Those who stayed after contracts ended.
• Activism:
• Founded the Natal Indian Congress (1894) to unite Indians.
• Started the newspaper Indian Opinion.
• Initially used moderate methods (petitions, memorials), which were ineffective.
• Discovery of Satyagraha:
• Developed the method of Satyagraha (passive resistance) based on truth and non-violence.
• Led successful campaigns against discriminatory laws, convincing him of the masses' potential.

Gandhi's Return to India and Early Movements

• Arrival in India: Returned in January 1915.
• Assessment Period
• Toured India for a year to understand the conditions of the masses.
• Political Context
• Moderates vs. Extremists: Indian politics was divided.
• Home Rule Movement: Led by Tilak and Annie Besant.
• Early Satyagrahas
• Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
• Issue: Exploitation of peasants forced to grow indigo under the tinkathia system.
• Actions:
• Gandhi defied authorities, leading to his first act of civil disobedience in India.
• Abolition of the tinkathia system and partial compensation to peasants.
• Assistants: Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani, Mazhar-ul-Haq.
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918):
• Issue: Mill workers demanded a 50% wage hike due to inflation; owners offered 20%.
• Actions:
• Gandhi advised workers to demand 35%.
• Undertook a fast unto death to support workers.
• Resulted in a 35% wage increase.
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
• Issue: Peasants faced crop failure and sought revenue remission.
• Actions:
• Gandhi advised peasants to withhold revenue.
• Led by Sardar Patel and others, the movement remained non-violent despite government repression.
• Outcome: Revenue suspended for poor peasants.

Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• Rowlatt Act Opposition
• Gandhi's Response: Called it a "Black Act"; organized a nationwide hartal on April 6, 1919.
• Protests: Widespread, sometimes turning violent.
• Punjab's Agitation
• Arrest of Leaders: Dr. Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew deported.
• Martial Law Imposed: Under General Dyer; severe repression.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)
• Event: Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed crowd, killing around 1,000 people.
• Aftermath:
• Tagore renounced his knighthood.
• Gandhi returned the title Kaiser-i-Hind.
• Hunter Committee condemned Dyer but imposed no penalties.

Khilafat Movement and Non-Cooperation

• Khilafat Issue
• Background: Post-WWI dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and weakening of the Caliphate.
• Indian Muslim Leaders: Ali brothers, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad initiated protests.
• Gandhi's Involvement
• Saw an opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity.
• All India Khilafat Committee appointed Gandhi as president.
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
• Objectives: Address Punjab wrongs, Khilafat issue, and achieve Swaraj.
• Methods:
• Boycott of foreign goods, government schools, colleges, courts, and councils.
• Promotion of Khadi and indigenous industries.
• Surrender of titles and honors.
• Nagpur Session (1920):
• Reforms in Congress:
• Changed goal to attaining Swaraj through peaceful means.
• Established a 15-member Congress Working Committee (CWC).
• Organized provincial committees on linguistic lines.
• Reduced membership fee to four annas.
• Departure of Leaders: Jinnah, Annie Besant, Surendranath Banerjee left Congress.

Spread and Impact of Non-Cooperation

• Mass Participation
• Students left government institutions; national schools like Jamia Millia Islamia and Kashi Vidyapeeth were established.
• Lawyers gave up practice.
• Foreign Goods were boycotted and burned.
• Regional Variations
• Midnapore: No-tax movement.
• Assam: Strikes in tea plantations.
• Bihar: Confrontations between castes.
• UP: Awadh Kisan Movement, Eka Movement.
• Malabar: Mapillah Rebellion, which turned communal.
• Punjab: Sikhs agitated for control of Gurudwaras.
• Diverse Participants
• Peasants, workers, women, and business class participated.
• Hindu-Muslim Unity was notable.

Chauri Chaura Incident and Suspension

• Chauri Chaura (February 1922)
• Event: Protesters clashed with police, burned a police station, killing 22 policemen.
• Gandhi's Reaction: Deeply disturbed by the violence.
• Suspension of Movement
• Congress Working Committee met at Bardoli and decided to suspend the movement.
• Gandhi Arrested: In March 1922, further demoralizing nationalists.

Emergence of Swarajists and No-Changers

• Debate within Congress
• No-Changers: Favored continued boycott and focused on constructive work.
• Leaders: C. Rajagopalachari, Sardar Patel, Rajendra Prasad.
• Swarajists: Wanted to enter legislative councils to obstruct and expose them.
• Leaders: C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Ajmal Khan.
• Formation of Swaraj Party
• After the Gaya Session (1922), Swarajists formed the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party.
• Compromise
• In 1923, both groups agreed to work under Congress while pursuing their strategies.

Swarajists in Legislative Councils

• Achievements
• Fiery Speeches against colonial policies.
• Vithalbhai Patel became Speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly.
• Defeated the Public Safety Bill (1928).
• Challenges
• Internal Divisions: Emergence of Responsivists who wanted to cooperate with the government.
• Death of C.R. Das (1925): Weakened the Swarajist faction.
• End of Participation
• With the declaration of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) in 1930, Swarajists resigned from councils.

Simon Commission and Nehru Report

• Simon Commission (1927)
• Composition: All-white commission without any Indian members.
• Nationwide Boycott: Led by Congress, supported by Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League factions.
• Protests: Lala Lajpat Rai was fatally injured during protests.
• Challenge by Birkenhead
• Secretary of State challenged Indians to draft a consensual constitution.
• Nehru Committee (1928)
• Chairman: Motilal Nehru.
• Recommendations:
• Dominion Status within the British Empire.
• Joint Electorates with reserved seats for minorities.
• Fundamental Rights and Universal Adult Franchise.
• Provincial Autonomy and Linguistic Provinces.
• Secular State with separation of religion and politics.
• Opposition
• Young Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose demanded Complete Independence.
• Muslim League and Jinnah's Fourteen Points: Rejected the Nehru Report for not accommodating their demands.

Towards Purna Swaraj

• Calcutta Session (1928)
• Congress adopted the Nehru Report with the condition of seeking complete independence if dominion status wasn't granted in a year.
• Irwin Declaration (1929)
• Vague promise of dominion status without a timeline.
• Announcement of a Round Table Conference (RTC).
• Lahore Session (1929)
• President: Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Resolution:
• Declared Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as the goal.
• Decided to boycott the RTC.
• Authorized the launch of a Civil Disobedience Movement.

Civil Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha

• Gandhi's Eleven Demands
• Included reduction of military expenditure, abolition of salt tax, and release of political prisoners.
• British Response: No concessions.
• Dandi March (March-April 1930)
• March 12, 1930: Gandhi began a 240-mile march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with 78 followers.
• April 6, 1930: Broke the salt law by picking up salt, symbolizing defiance.
• Nationwide Movement
• Salt Satyagraha spread across India:
• C. Rajagopalachari led a march in Tamil Nadu.
• K. Kelappan led in Malabar.
• Gopalbandhu Chaudhuri in Odisha.
• No-Chowkidari Tax Agitation in Bihar.
• Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan in Peshawar.
• Government Repression
• Gandhi Arrested: May 1930.
• Brutal Suppression: Mass arrests, censorship, and violence against protesters.

First Round Table Conference (1930)

• Participants
• Princely States, Muslim League (Jinnah), Liberals, Dalits (Ambedkar), Sikhs, Justice Party, Hindu Mahasabha sympathizers.
• Outcome
• Little progress due to Congress's absence.
• British Realization: Recognized the need for Congress's participation.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

• Terms of the Pact
• Government Concessions:
• Release of political prisoners not involved in violence.
• Return of confiscated properties.
• Right to make salt in coastal areas.
• Congress Concessions:
• Suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Participation in the Second Round Table Conference.
• Controversies
• Bhagat Singh's Execution: Gandhi couldn't secure commutation of his death sentence, leading to criticism.

Karachi Session and Fundamental Rights

• Karachi Session (March 1931)
• President: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
• Resolutions:
• Reiterated commitment to Purna Swaraj.
• Adopted resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme.
• Fundamental Rights
• Civil Liberties: Freedom of speech, press, assembly.
• Equality: No discrimination based on caste, creed, or gender.
• Education: Free and compulsory primary education.
• Minority Rights: Protection of cultural and religious interests.
• Economic Programme
• Land Reforms: Reduction of rent, relief from indebtedness.
• Labor Rights: Fair wages, right to form unions.
• State Ownership: Control of key industries and services.

Second Round Table Conference (1931)

• Congress Participation: Represented solely by Gandhi.
• Challenges
• Minority Representation: Other delegates contested Gandhi's claim to represent all Indians.
• Communal Issues: Disagreements over separate electorates for minorities.
• Outcome
• Failure to Reach Consensus.
• British PM Ramsay MacDonald promised a Communal Award if Indians couldn't agree.

Resumption and Suppression of Civil Disobedience

• Return to India
• Gandhi resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Government Crackdown:
• Gandhi and other leaders arrested.
• Repressive Measures: Bans on Congress activities, censorship, property confiscation.
• Movement's End
• Withdrawal in 1934 due to severe repression and lack of progress.

Communal Award and Poona Pact

• Communal Award (August 1932)
• Announced by Ramsay MacDonald.
• Granted Separate Electorates to minorities, including Dalits.
• Gandhi's Opposition
• Believed it would divide Hindus and harm Dalit interests.
• Fast unto Death: Began in September 1932 to oppose the award.
• Poona Pact (September 1932)
• Agreement between Gandhi and Ambedkar.
• Terms:
• Abolished separate electorates for Dalits.
• Increased reserved seats for Dalits in legislatures.
• Government Acceptance: Incorporated into the award.

Third Round Table Conference and Government of India Act 1935

• Third RTC (1932)
• Congress Boycott: Minimal participation.
• Outcome: Insignificant progress.
• White Paper (1933)
• Recommendations debated in the British Parliament.
• Government of India Act 1935
• Provisions:
• Introduction of Provincial Autonomy.
• Establishment of a Federal Government (which never materialized).
• Extension of Franchise.
• Retention of Separate Electorates.

Summary of Key Differences Between Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements

Conclusion

• The period from 1917 to 1935 was marked by significant shifts in the Indian independence movement.
• Gandhi's Leadership
• Introduced Satyagraha as a powerful tool.
• Unified diverse groups under common causes.
• National Movements
• Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience mobilized millions.
• Challenges
• Communal Divisions exacerbated by British policies.
• Internal Debates on strategies and goals.
• Legacy
• Set the stage for future struggles leading to India's independence in 1947.