Ancient History notes · Chapter 4 of 12
Vedic Period
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At a glance
- Usually asked on: Rig Vedic vs Later Vedic, Upanishads, schools of philosophy.
Aryan Origins
- “Aryan” is a linguistic term, not a race: it means speakers of one language family. The homeland is debated; the dominant view is Central Asia (Tilak proposed the Arctic).
- Central Asian links: the Boghazkoi inscription (Turkey, 1380 BC) naming Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya, and the Hittite–Mitanni treaty invoking the same gods.
- They came in waves between 2000 and 1500 BC and first settled in Punjab, the Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers).
Check yourself
Is 'Aryan' a racial term? What is the dominant view on the Aryan homeland?
'Aryan' is a linguistic term, NOT a race — it denotes speakers of a language family.
Homeland is debated; the dominant view is Central Asia. An older alternative theory proposed the Arctic region (Tilak).
What two pieces of evidence support Central Asian links for the Aryans?
• Boghazkoi Inscription (Turkey, 1380 BC) — mentions Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Nasatya
• The Hittite–Mitanni treaty, which invokes the same Vedic gods
When did the Aryans migrate to India and where did they first settle?
In waves between 2000–1500 BC.
They first settled in Punjab — the Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers).
Geography + Rivers
- The seven rivers: Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipas (Beas), Sutudri (Sutlej), Sindhu (Indus) and the Sarasvati.
- The Sindhu is the most often mentioned river; the Sarasvati, usually identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra, is the holiest. PYQ UPSC 1996
- The Ganga is mentioned once and the Yamuna three times: the Rig Vedic heartland lay in the north-west.
- The Nadisukta hymn lists 21 rivers, from the Ganga in the east to the Kubha (Kabul) in the west.
Check yourself
Name the seven rivers of the Sapta Sindhu with their modern names.
• Vitasta — Jhelum
• Asikni — Chenab
• Parushni — Ravi
• Vipas — Beas
• Sutudri — Sutlej
• Sindhu — Indus
• Sarasvati
💡 Vi–J, As–C, Pa–R, Vi–B, Su–S, Sindhu–I
Which river is mentioned most often in the Rig Veda, and which is called the 'most pious'? PYQ UPSC 1996
Sindhu (Indus) is the most frequently mentioned.
Sarasvati is described as the most pious/holiest river — usually identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra.
How often are the Ganga and Yamuna mentioned in the Rig Veda?
Ganga — only once; Yamuna — three times.
Their rarity shows the Rig Vedic centre of gravity lay in the north-west, not the Ganga plains.
What is the Nadisukta hymn?
A Rig Vedic hymn listing 21 rivers, running from the Ganga in the east to the Kubha (Kabul) in the west — defining the geographical horizon of the Rig Vedic people.
Rig Vedic Polity
- Units, smallest first: kula (family) → grama (village) → vis (clan) → jana (tribe) → rashtra. The polity was tribal, not territorial, and society semi-nomadic.
- Kosa means treasury; kula, vansha and gotra are kinship terms. PYQ UPSC 1996
- The rajan was hereditary (a few cases suggest election), with no standing army; bali was a voluntary tribute, not a tax.
- Officials: the purohita, chief priest and most important (e.g. Vasishtha, Vishvamitra); the senani, army chief; the gramani, village head.
- Assemblies: the sabha (a small body of elders), samiti (general assembly), vidatha and gana, which together checked the king's power.
Check yourself
Give the ascending order of Rig Vedic social-political units.
Kula (family) → Grama (village) → Vis (clan) → Jana (tribe) → Rashtra
Polity was tribal, not territorial; society was semi-nomadic.
Odd one out: Kula, Vansha, Gotra, Kosa. Why? PYQ UPSC 1996
Kosa — it means treasury.
Kula, Vansha and Gotra are all kinship terms.
What was the nature of Rig Vedic kingship, and what was 'Bali'?
The Rajan was hereditary, though a few cases suggest election.
There was no standing army.
Bali = a voluntary tribute — NOT a tax.
Name the three key Rig Vedic officials and their roles.
• Purohita → chief priest, the most important official (e.g. Vasishtha, Vishvamitra)
• Senani → army chief
• Gramani → village head
Name the Rig Vedic assemblies and their function.
Sabha (smaller, elite body of elders), Samiti (general assembly), Vidatha and Gana.
Together they acted as a check on the king's power.
Battle of Ten Kings
- Dasharajna: Sudas of the Bharata tribe defeated a confederation of ten kings on the Parushni (Ravi), as told in Mandala 7; he is said to have broken a natural dam to drown them.
- The name Bharata for India comes from this victorious tribe.
Check yourself
Dasharajna — who fought whom, on which river, and in which book?
King Sudas of the Bharata tribe defeated a confederation of 10 kings on the Parushni (Ravi).
Described in Book (Mandala) 7 of the Rig Veda. Sudas is said to have broken a natural dam to drown his enemies.
What is the significance of the Bharata tribe?
The name 'Bharata' for India originates from this tribe — the victors of the Battle of Ten Kings.
Varna System
- The four varnas were based on occupation, not birth, and were flexible: “I am a singer; my father a physician, my mother a grinder of corn.”
- The Purushasukta in Mandala 10, a later addition, first describes them, born from the body of the cosmic Purusha.
Check yourself
What was the basis of varna in the Rig Vedic period?
Four varnas existed but were based on occupation, NOT birth — the system was flexible.
A famous hymn illustrates this: 'I am a singer; my father a physician, my mother a grinder of corn.'
Which hymn first describes the four varnas, and where does it occur?
The Purushasukta, in Mandala 10 — a later addition to the Rig Veda.
It derives the four varnas from the body of the cosmic Purusha.
Rig Vedic Society
- The family was patriarchal and monogamous.
Check yourself
What was the structure of the Rig Vedic family?
Patriarchal and monogamous.
Rig Vedic Women
- Women had high status: they took part in rituals and assemblies, and there was no child marriage.
- Brahmavadinis, women who composed hymns: Ghosha, Vishvavara, Maitreyi (wife of Yajnavalkya), Lopamudra (wife of Agastya). PYQ UPSC 1995
Check yourself
What was the position of women in the Rig Vedic period?
High status: women participated in rituals and assemblies, and there was no child marriage.
Who were the Brahmavadinis? Name some. PYQ UPSC 1995
Women who composed Vedic hymns.
Examples: Ghosha, Vishvavara, Maitreyi (wife of Yajnavalkya), Lopamudra (wife of Agastya).
Did Gargi compose Vedic hymns? PYQ UPSC 1995
No. Gargi debated (famously with Yajnavalkya in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) but did not compose hymns.
Lopamudra is the one who composed Rig Vedic hymns.
Rig Vedic Economy
- The economy was mainly pastoral, farming secondary; animals kept: cattle, horses, goats, sheep, dogs.
- Gavishti, “search for cows”, is the word for war: cattle were the chief wealth.
- The cow was aghnya, “not to be killed”, and killing one was punishable by death.
- Cattle words: godhuli, dusk (cow dust); samgava, morning milking; gomat, a rich man (owner of cows); duhitri, daughter (one who milks).
- There were no coins and trade was limited; the nishka, a gold ornament used as a unit of value, became a coin in the post-Vedic period. PYQ UPSC 1993
Check yourself
What was the Rig Vedic economy based on, and what animals were kept?
Primarily pastoral; agriculture was secondary.
Animals: cattle, horses, goat, sheep, dog.
⚠️ Tiger, cat and camel are NOT mentioned.
What does 'gavishti' mean and what does it reveal?
Literally 'search for cows' — and it is the Rig Vedic word for war.
This shows that cattle were the chief form of wealth and the main object of conflict.
What is 'Aghnya' and what penalty protected the cow?
Aghnya = 'not to be killed' — an epithet of the cow.
Death was prescribed for cow-killing.
Decode these cattle-derived Rig Vedic words: godhuli, samgava, gomat, duhitri.
• godhuli — dusk ('cow dust', when herds return)
• samgava — morning (when cows are milked together)
• gomat — a wealthy person ('one who has cows')
• duhitri — daughter ('one who milks')
Did the Rig Vedic people use coins? What was the Nishka? PYQ UPSC 1993
No coins existed; trade was limited.
Nishka was a gold ornament used as a unit of value, which evolved into a coin in the post-Vedic period.
Rig Vedic Religion
- No idols and no temples: nature worship through simple yajnas.
- Indra (Purandara), the most important god with ~250 hymns: the fort-destroyer, god of rain and war. Agni, second with ~200 hymns, the go-between of humans and gods.
- Varuna, god of water and cosmic order, is Ritasya Gopa, guardian of rita. Soma is the sacred plant drink, with the whole 9th Mandala devoted to it.
- Rita: the cosmic order, the natural moral law of the universe. Dharma: the duties of individuals within it. PYQ UPSC 2011
- Henotheism: many gods, each treated as supreme in turn while addressed.
Check yourself
What were the two defining features of Rig Vedic religion?
• No idols and no temples
• Nature worship through simple yajnas
Indra and Agni — importance, number of hymns and functions?
• Indra (Purandara) — most important god, ~250 hymns; the fort-destroyer, god of rain and war
• Agni — second, ~200 hymns; the intermediary between humans and gods
Varuna and Soma — what are they associated with?
• Varuna — god of water and cosmic order; called 'Ritasya Gopa', guardian of Rita
• Soma — the sacred plant drink; the entire 9th Mandala is dedicated to Soma
Distinguish Rita from Dharma. PYQ UPSC 2011
Rita = cosmic order / natural moral law that governs the universe.
Dharma = obligations and duties of individuals within that order.
What is henotheism?
The practice of worshipping many gods, each treated as supreme in turn while being addressed — characteristic of Rig Vedic religion (distinct from both monotheism and simple polytheism).
Later Vedic Expansion
- The centre moved east from the Sarasvati to the Ganga valley (Madhyadesa); texts name Aryavarta (north), Madhyadesa (middle) and Dakshinapath (south).
- The Satapatha Brahmana tells how Videgha Mathava crossed the Sadanira (Gandak) into Videha (Tirhut, Mithila): the eastward spread into north Bihar.
- New janapadas: Kuru (from Puru + Bharata), Panchala, Kashi, Videha, Kosala: the shift from jana to janapada, tribe to territory.
Check yourself
How did the geographical centre shift in the Later Vedic period?
From the Sarasvati region eastward to the Ganga valley — the Madhyadesa.
The three regions named in texts: Aryavarta (north), Madhyadesa (middle), Dakshinapath (south).
What eastward migration story does the Satapatha Brahmana record?
Videgha Mathava crossed the Sadanira (Gandak) river to reach Videha (Tirhut / Mithila) — a legend recording the Aryan eastward expansion into north Bihar.
Which Janapadas emerged in the Later Vedic period?
Kuru (from the merger of Puru + Bharata), Panchala, Kashi, Videha, Kosala.
This marks the shift from tribe to territory — from Jana to Janapada.
Later Vedic Polity
- New officials: the sangrihitri (treasurer), bhagadugha (tax collector: regular taxes begin), sthapati (chief judge, over outlying areas), akshavapa (accountant).
- The 12 ratnins (“jewel-bearers”) of the Satapatha Brahmana received offerings at the Rajasuya.
- Bali became compulsory, and the king was called vishamatta, “eater of the people”.
- The vidatha disappeared, the sabha became a court, and royal power grew; the divine origin of kingship first appears in the Taittiriya Brahmana.
Check yourself
Name the four new Later Vedic officials and their functions.
• Sangrihitri → treasurer / tribute collector
• Bhagadugha → tax collector (regular taxation begins)
• Sthapati → chief judge; administered outlying areas
• Akshavapa → accountant
Who were the 12 Ratnins?
The 'jewel-bearers' mentioned in the Satapatha Brahmana — high officials and dignitaries who received offerings at the Rajasuya sacrifice.
How did 'Bali' change, and what was the king now called?
Bali became compulsory (it had been voluntary in the Rig Vedic period).
The Rajan came to be called 'Vishamatta' — 'eater of the people'.
What happened to the Vedic assemblies, and where does divine kingship first appear?
Vidatha completely disappeared; the Sabha became judicial; the king's power grew.
The divine origin of kingship first appears in the Taittiriya Brahmana.
Mahayajnas
- Rajasuya: the royal consecration. Vajapeya: the “drink of strength”, with a chariot race the king had to win.
- Ashvamedha: the horse sacrifice; the horse roamed for a year, then a three-day ritual, and land it crossed unchallenged was claimed. Agnishtoma: animal sacrifice to Agni with soma offerings.
Check yourself
Rajasuya and Vajapeya — what were they?
• Rajasuya — the royal consecration ceremony
• Vajapeya — the 'drink of strength', involving a chariot race the king had to win
Ashvamedha and Agnishtoma — what were they?
• Ashvamedha — horse sacrifice: the horse roamed free for 1 year, followed by a 3-day ritual; territory it crossed unchallenged was claimed
• Agnishtoma — animal sacrifice to Agni, with soma offerings
Later Vedic Varna
- Varna became rigid and hereditary: the first three varnas were dvija (twice-born, entitled to upanayana); Shudras were excluded.
- The gotra system appeared: marriage within the same gotra is forbidden (exogamy).
Check yourself
How did the varna system change in the Later Vedic period?
It became rigid and hereditary.
The first three varnas = Dvija (twice-born, entitled to Upanayana); Shudras were excluded.
What is the gotra system and what rule follows from it?
A system of exogamous clan lineages that appeared in the Later Vedic period.
Rule: marriage within the same gotra is prohibited — i.e. exogamy.
Later Vedic Women
- Women's status declined: they were barred from assemblies, and the Aitareya Brahmana calls a daughter a source of misery. Exception: Gargi debated Yajnavalkya (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad).
- The Maitrayani Samhita names three evils: liquor, woman and dice.
Check yourself
How did the status of women change, and what does the Aitareya Brahmana say?
Status declined sharply; women were barred from assemblies.
The Aitareya Brahmana calls a 'daughter a source of misery'.
Exception: Gargi debated Yajnavalkya in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
What 'three evils' does the Maitrayani Samhita name?
Liquor, woman, and dice — evidence of the declining view of women in Later Vedic texts.
Ashramas
- Four ashramas, first listed in the Jabala Upanishad: brahmacharya (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (forest hermit), sannyasa (renunciation).
- They serve the four purusharthas: dharma, artha, kama, moksha.
Check yourself
Name the four Ashramas and the text that first lists them.
First listed in the Jabala Upanishad:
1. Brahmacharya — student life
2. Grihastha — householder
3. Vanaprastha — forest hermit
4. Sannyasa — renunciation
Name the four Purusharthas.
Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha — the four aims of life that the Ashrama scheme is designed to fulfil.
Marriage
- Eight forms of marriage: the highest Brahma, the lowest Paishacha; Gandharva is love marriage, by mutual consent.
Check yourself
How many types of marriage were recognised, and name the highest, lowest and the 'love marriage'.
8 types.
Highest: Brahma; lowest: Paishacha.
Gandharva = love marriage (by mutual consent).
Later Vedic Economy
- Land replaced cattle as the chief wealth: farming became dominant once iron tools cleared the Ganga valley's forests.
- Krishna (Shyama) ayas is iron; lohit ayas is copper. PYQ UPSC 2017
- Early guilds: merchant corporations (ganas) and aldermen (shreshtins). Pottery: PGW, 1100–600 BC.
Check yourself
What replaced cattle as the chief form of wealth, and why?
Land — because agriculture became dominant once iron tools allowed clearance of the Ganga valley forests.
What are Krishna/Shyama Ayas and Lohit Ayas? What did 'Ayas' mean in the Rig Veda? PYQ UPSC 2017
• Krishna / Shyama Ayas = iron (dark metal)
• Lohit Ayas = copper (red metal)
⚠️ In the Rig Veda, 'Ayas' is a general term for metal — NOT specifically iron.
What is the earliest evidence of guilds, and which pottery marks this era?
Merchant corporations (Ganas) and aldermen (Shreshtins) — early evidence of guilds.
Pottery: PGW (Painted Grey Ware), 1100–600 BC.
Later Vedic Religion
- Prajapati (later Brahma) became supreme, replacing Indra; Vishnu and Rudra (later Shiva) rose; Indra and Agni declined; Pushan, protector of cattle, became the god of the Shudras.
- Sacrifices grew elaborate, with up to 17 priests, lasting months or years, and heavy fees (dakshina); this provoked the Upanishadic turn inward and the Buddhist and Jain movements.
- The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad first states samsara (the cycle of rebirth) with karma.
- The four yugas: Krita (Satya) → Treta → Dvapara → Kali (the present age). PYQ UPSC 1996
Check yourself
How did the divine hierarchy shift in the Later Vedic period?
Prajapati (later Brahma) became the supreme god, replacing Indra.
Vishnu and Rudra (later Shiva) rose to prominence.
Indra and Agni declined; Pushan — who protected cattle — became the god of the Shudras.
How elaborate did sacrifices become, and what did this provoke?
Sacrifices required up to 17 priests and could last months or years, with heavy fees (dakshina).
This provoked reactions: the Upanishadic turn inward, and the Buddhist and Jain heterodox movements.
Which text first articulates transmigration and karma?
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad — the first articulation of samsara (the cycle of birth, death and rebirth) together with karma.
Name the four Yugas in order. PYQ UPSC 1996
Krita (Satya) → Treta → Dvapara → Kali (the current age).
Rig vs Later Vedic
- Polity: Rig Vedic tribal, bali voluntary, vidatha active; Later Vedic territorial, bali compulsory, vidatha gone.
- Varna: Rig Vedic by occupation, flexible; Later Vedic by birth, rigid, dvija, Shudras excluded. Economy: Rig Vedic pastoral, cattle as wealth, no coins; Later Vedic agricultural, with iron, guilds and PGW.
- Religion: Rig Vedic Indra supreme, simple yajnas; Later Vedic Prajapati supreme, Vishnu and Rudra rising, elaborate sacrifices. Women: Rig Vedic Brahmavadinis in assemblies; Later Vedic declined, barred from assemblies.
Check yourself
Compare Rig Vedic and Later Vedic polity.
Rig Vedic: tribal; Bali voluntary; Vidatha active.
Later Vedic: territorial; Bali compulsory; Vidatha disappeared.
Compare Rig Vedic and Later Vedic varna and economy.
Varna — Rig Vedic: occupation-based, flexible | Later Vedic: birth-based, rigid; Dvija; Shudras excluded.
Economy — Rig Vedic: pastoral, cattle = wealth, no coins | Later Vedic: agriculture, iron use, guilds, PGW.
Compare Rig Vedic and Later Vedic religion and women's position.
Religion — Rig Vedic: Indra supreme, simple yajnas, no temples | Later Vedic: Prajapati supreme, Vishnu + Rudra rise, elaborate sacrifices.
Women — Rig Vedic: Brahmavadinis, attended assemblies | Later Vedic: declined, barred from assemblies.
Vedic Texts – Structure
- Each Veda has four layers: Samhita (hymns), Brahmana (ritual prose, how to perform sacrifices), Aranyaka (“forest books”, for hermits moving from ritual to philosophy), Upanishad (philosophy).
- Shruti (heard): the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. Smriti (remembered): the Epics and Puranas.
Check yourself
Name the four layers of each Veda and what each contains.
1. Samhita — hymns
2. Brahmana — ritual prose; explains how to perform sacrifices
3. Aranyaka — 'forest books'; for hermits transitioning from ritual to philosophy
4. Upanishad — philosophy
Which Vedic texts are Shruti and which are Smriti?
Shruti (divinely heard): Samhitas + Brahmanas (and Aranyakas, Upanishads).
Smriti (remembered): Epics + Puranas.
Rig Veda
- Rig Veda: 1,028 hymns in 10 Mandalas, 10,580 verses; priest the hotri; the oldest text in the world, the “First Testament of Mankind”.
- Mandalas 2–7, the family books, are oldest; 1 and 10 are later additions, 10 holding the Purushasukta. Only the Shakala recension survives.
Check yourself
Rig Veda — hymns, Mandalas, verses and priest?
1,028 hymns (suktas) in 10 Mandalas; 10,580 verses.
Priest: Hotri.
It is the oldest text in the world — called the 'First Testament of Mankind'.
Which Mandalas are the oldest and which are later additions?
Mandalas 2–7 are the oldest — the 'family books'.
Mandalas 1 and 10 are later additions; Mandala 10 contains the Purushasukta (origin of the four varnas).
Only the Shakala recension survives.
Sama Veda
- Sama Veda: 1,810 verses, mostly from the Rig Veda set to music; priest the udgatri; the origin of Indian music.
Check yourself
Sama Veda — number of verses, source, priest and significance?
1,810 verses, mostly drawn from the Rig Veda, set to music.
Priest: Udgatri.
It is the origin of Indian music.
Yajur Veda
- Yajur Veda: ritual formulae, the only Veda with prose; priest the adhvaryu; two recensions, Shukla (white) and Krishna (black).
Check yourself
Yajur Veda — content, unique feature, priest and recensions?
Contains ritual formulae; it is the only Veda with prose.
Priest: Adhvaryu.
Two recensions: Shukla (White) and Krishna (Black).
Vedas
- Vedatrayi = Rig + Yajur + Sama; the Atharva Veda is left out.
Check yourself
What is the Vedatrayi, and how do you remember Veda–priest pairs?
Vedatrayi = Rig + Yajur + Sama (the Atharva Veda is excluded).
💡 Rig → Hotri | Sama → Udgatri | Yajur → Adhvaryu
Atharva Veda
- Atharva Veda: charms, spells and magic, popular belief and medicine; the latest Veda, outside the Vedatrayi, attributed to the sage Atharvan.
Check yourself
Atharva Veda — content, status and attributed sage?
Charms, spells and magic; reflects popular beliefs and medicine.
It is the latest Veda and is excluded from the Vedatrayi.
Attributed to the sage Atharvan.
Brahmanas
- Brahmanas: Rig → Aitareya, Kaushitaki; Yajur → Shatapatha (oldest and largest), Taittiriya; Sama → Panchavimsha, Chhandogya, Jaiminiya; Atharva → Gopatha.
- The Shatapatha records Videgha Mathava's crossing of the Sadanira and the 12 ratnins of the Rajasuya.
Check yourself
Match each Veda to its Brahmanas.
• Rig → Aitareya, Kaushitaki
• Yajur → Shatapatha (oldest + largest), Taittiriya
• Sama → Panchavimsha, Chhandogya, Jaiminiya
• Atharva → Gopatha
Why is the Shatapatha Brahmana important?
It is the oldest and largest Brahmana. It records Videgha Mathava's eastward migration across the Sadanira, and describes the 12 Ratnins of the Rajasuya.
Vedangas
- Language vedangas: shiksha (phonetics), vyakarana (grammar: Panini's Ashtadhyayi, the oldest grammar), nirukta (etymology: Yaska's Nirukta, the oldest dictionary), chhanda (metre: Pingala).
- Kalpa: Shrauta sutras (public sacrifices), Grihya sutras (household rites), Dharma sutras (law).
- Jyotisha: astronomy, to time the sacrifices; key text Lagadha's Vedanga Jyotisha.
Check yourself
Which Vedangas are language-related, and what is each about?
• Shiksha → phonetics
• Vyakarana → grammar (Panini's Ashtadhyayi, the oldest grammar)
• Nirukta → etymology (Yaska's Nirukta, the oldest dictionary)
• Chhanda → metre (Pingala)
What does the Kalpa Vedanga contain?
Three groups of sutras dealing with rituals and law:
• Shrauta Sutras — public sacrifices
• Grihya Sutras — household rituals
• Dharma Sutras — law
Jyotisha — subject and key text?
Astronomy — needed to fix the correct timing of sacrifices.
Key text: Lagadha Muni's Vedanga Jyotisha.
Upavedas
- Upavedas, applied knowledge: Ayurveda (medicine) → Rig; Gandharvaveda (music) → Sama; Dhanurveda (warfare) → Yajur; Shilpaveda (craft) → Atharva.
Check yourself
Name the four Upavedas and the Veda each is attached to.
Upavedas = applied knowledge associated with the Vedas:
• Ayurveda (medicine) → Rig Veda
• Gandharvaveda (music) → Sama Veda
• Dhanurveda (warfare) → Yajur Veda
• Shilpaveda (craft) → Atharva Veda
Upanishads
- Upanishad: “sitting near” a teacher; also Vedanta, “end of the Vedas”; composed 1000–500 BC, largely in reaction to Later Vedic ritualism. The oldest are the Brihadaranyaka, then the Chandogya (108 in all, 13 principal).
- Core doctrine: Brahman = Atman, put as Tat Tvam Asi, “thou art that” (Chandogya): para vidya, the higher knowledge.
- Karma: actions decide future births. Samsara: the cycle of rebirth. Moksha: liberation, through jnana (knowledge).
- The Nachiketa–Yama dialogue on death and the soul is in the Kathopanishad. PYQ UPSC 1997
- The Upanishads do contain parables (Chhandogya, Kathopanishad) and are earlier than the Puranas (1000–500 BC against 200 CE onwards). PYQ UPSC 2024
Check yourself
What does 'Upanishad' mean, why are they called Vedanta, and when were they composed?
Means 'sitting near' (a teacher).
Also called Vedanta = 'end of the Vedas'.
Composed 1000–500 BC, largely as a reaction to the ritualism of the Later Vedic period.
Which is the oldest Upanishad, and which is second oldest?
Brihadaranyaka — oldest.
Chandogya — second oldest.
(108 Upanishads in total; 13 principal.)
State the core Upanishadic doctrine and the mahavakya that expresses it.
Brahman (universal reality) = Atman (individual soul).
Expressed in 'Tat Tvam Asi' — 'Thou art That' — from the Chandogya Upanishad.
This is Para Vidya, higher knowledge.
Define karma, samsara and moksha in Upanishadic thought.
• Karma — actions determine future births
• Samsara — the cycle of rebirth
• Moksha — liberation, attained via jnana (knowledge)
The Nachiketa–Yama dialogue on death and the soul is from which Upanishad? PYQ UPSC 1997
The Kathopanishad (Katha Upanishad).
Do the Upanishads contain parables? And are they earlier or later than the Puranas? PYQ UPSC 2024
Yes — the Upanishads do contain parables (e.g. in the Chhandogya and Kathopanishad).
They are earlier than the Puranas: Upanishads 1000–500 BC vs Puranas 200 CE onwards.
Shad Darshana
- Darshana means “seeing”, a viewpoint; all six schools are astika (orthodox), accepting the Vedas.
- Samkhya (Kapila), the oldest: dualism of purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter), atheistic. Yoga (Patanjali): practical Samkhya, the eight-limbed path, but accepting Ishvara.
- Nyaya (Akshapada Gautama): logic and knowledge, four pramanas, the syllogism. Vaisheshika (Uluka Kanada): atomism, nine dravyas (substances), paired with Nyaya.
- Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini), the karmakanda: Vedic ritual is supreme, and liberation comes through karma (ritual action), not jnana, bhakti or yoga. PYQ UPSC 2005
- Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) (Badarayana), the jnanakanda: Brahman is the ultimate reality; it branches into Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita.
Check yourself
What does 'Darshana' mean and what do all six schools have in common?
Darshana = 'seeing' / viewpoint.
All 6 are Astika (orthodox) — they accept the authority of the Vedas.
Samkhya — founder and core idea?
Founder: Kapila.
Dualism of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter); it is atheistic.
The oldest of the six schools.
Yoga — founder and core idea?
Founder: Patanjali.
It is practical Samkhya — the 8-limbed path (Ashtanga yoga).
Unlike Samkhya, it accepts Ishvara (God).
Nyaya and Vaisheshika — founders and core ideas?
• Nyaya — Akshapada Gautama; logic + epistemology; 4 pramanas; the syllogism
• Vaisheshika — Uluka Kanada; atomism; 9 dravyas (substances); traditionally paired with Nyaya
Purva Mimamsa — founder and how is liberation attained? PYQ UPSC 2005
Founder: Jaimini.
Vedic rituals are supreme — liberation comes through karma (ritual action), NOT through jnana, bhakti or yoga.
This is the karmakanda school.
Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) — founder and core idea?
Founder: Badarayana.
Brahman is the ultimate reality. This is the jnanakanda school.
It branches into Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita.
Vedanta Sub-schools
- Advaita (Shankaracharya): non-dualism; Brahman alone is real, the world is maya, Atman = Brahman; liberation through jnana.
- Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja): qualified non-dualism; God, soul and matter are real, the soul depending on God; liberation through bhakti and God's grace.
- Dvaita (Madhvacharya): dualism; God and soul are eternally separate, Vishnu supreme; liberation through bhakti and Vishnu's grace alone.
Check yourself
Advaita — founder, doctrine and path to liberation?
Founder: Shankaracharya.
Non-dualism: Brahman alone is real; the world is Maya (illusion); Atman = Brahman.
Liberation via Jnana (knowledge / self-realisation).
Vishishtadvaita — founder, doctrine and path to liberation?
Founder: Ramanuja.
Qualified non-dualism: God, soul and matter are all real, but the soul depends on God.
Liberation via Bhakti (devotion) + God's grace.
Dvaita — founder, doctrine and path to liberation?
Founder: Madhvacharya.
Dualism: God and soul are eternally separate; Vishnu is supreme.
Liberation via Bhakti + the grace of Vishnu alone.
Charvaka
- Charvaka (Lokayata), a nastika school, rejected the Vedas, God, soul, karma and rebirth; only pratyaksha (direct perception) is valid knowledge.
- “Live well as long as you live, even by borrowing, for once cremated there is no return”: hedonistic materialism. PYQ UPSC 1994
Check yourself
Charvaka / Lokayata — what did it reject and what did it accept as valid knowledge?
A Nastika (heterodox) school that rejected the Vedas, God, soul, karma and rebirth.
Only pratyaksha (direct perception) is valid knowledge.
Which famous saying sums up Charvaka philosophy? PYQ UPSC 1994
'Live well, as long as you live. Live well even by borrowing, for once cremated, there is no return.'
This is hedonistic materialism — pleasure is the only goal and death is the end.
Ajivika
- The Ajivikas were founded by Makkhali Gosala, a former disciple of Mahavira: a nastika sect that rejected the Vedas.
- Niyati: absolute fatalism; there is no free will and no karma, and liberation comes only after a fixed number of rebirths.
- Patronised by Bindusara; Ashoka dedicated the Barabar caves to them. The sect survived in South India until about the 14th century. PYQ UPSC 2013
Check yourself
Ajivika sect — founder and his relationship with Mahavira?
Founded by Makkhali Gosala, a former disciple of Mahavira.
It was a Nastika (heterodox) sect that rejected the Vedas.
What is 'Niyati' and what does it imply?
Niyati = absolute fatalism / determinism.
Implication: there is no free will and no karma — everything is predetermined, and liberation comes only after a fixed number of rebirth cycles.
Which rulers patronised the Ajivikas, and what monument is associated with them? PYQ UPSC 2013
Patronised by Bindusara; Ashoka dedicated the Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas.
The sect survived until about the 14th century in South India.
All 12 chapters of Ancient History notes
- Sources of Ancient Indian History23 sections
- Pre-Historic India12 sections
- Indus Valley Civilization27 sections
- Vedic Period33 sections
- Mahajanapadas & Rise of Magadha15 sections
- Buddhism31 sections
- Jainism25 sections
- Mauryan Empire41 sections
- Post-Mauryan Period34 sections
- Gupta Empire31 sections
- Post-Gupta & Harsha's Era32 sections
- Early Medieval India38 sections