Ancient History notes · Chapter 12 of 12
Early Medieval India
38 sections, 69 flashcards. Open a card to check your answer, or revise them in the app with spaced revision.
At a glance
- Usually asked on: Dynasties, inscriptions, Nataraja, keywords, temples.
Nature of the State
- The early medieval period: 650–1200 CE, from Harsha's end to the Turkish conquest.
- R. S. Sharma's Indian feudalism: land grants created intermediaries between king and peasant, while trade and towns declined. The mahattara and pattakila were such village headmen, not military or guild officers. PYQ UPSC 2014
- Burton Stein's segmentary state (for the Cholas): the king largely ritual, real power local. B. D. Chattopadhyaya's state formation: not fragmentation but many new polities forming from tribal and local bases.
Check yourself
What is the date range of the early medieval period?
650–1200 CE — from the end of Harsha's era to the Turkish conquest.
What is the Indian Feudalism model, and who proposed it?
Proposed by R. S. Sharma.
Land grants created intermediaries between king and peasant, while trade and towns declined.
Who were the Mahattara and Pattakila? PYQ UPSC 2014
Village headmen and feudal intermediaries.
⚠️ They were NOT military or guild officials.
What is the Segmentary State model, who proposed it, and to whom does it apply?
Proposed by Burton Stein, applied to the Cholas.
Kings were largely ritual figures while real power was held locally.
What is the State Formation model, and who proposed it?
Proposed by B. D. Chattopadhyaya.
The early medieval era was NOT fragmentation but a proliferation of polities — new states forming from tribal and local bases.
Tripartite Struggle
- The tripartite struggle: Rashtrakutas (Deccan), Gurjara-Pratiharas (west) and Palas (east) fought for Kannauj for about 200 years.
Check yourself
Who fought the Tripartite Struggle, over what, and for how long?
Rashtrakutas (Deccan) vs Gurjara-Pratiharas (West) vs Palas (East).
The prize was control of Kannauj; the contest lasted about 200 years.
Rashtrakutas
- The Rashtrakutas (753–973 AD), once Chalukya feudatories (chiefs of a rashtra, linked to Latur), were founded by Dantidurga, who overthrew the Chalukyas in 753. PYQ UPSC 2006
- Krishna I built the Kailashanatha temple at Ellora, the largest monolithic rock-cut temple; Govinda III, the greatest, beat both the Pratiharas and the Palas.
- Amoghavarsha reigned 64 years, was Ashoka-like in temper, and wrote the Kavirajamarga, the earliest work on Kannada poetics.
- Krishna III beat the Cholas at Takkolam (949); capital Manyakheta. Tailapa II overthrew the line in 973, founding the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
- The Arab Sulaiman called their king Balhara and the Indian Ocean Dariya-i-Hargand.
Check yourself
Rashtrakutas — dates, origin and founder? PYQ UPSC 2006
753–973 AD. Originally feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami; the name means chiefs of a rashtra; related to Latur.
Founder: Dantidurga (753), who overthrew the Chalukyas.
Krishna I and Govinda III — what is each known for?
• Krishna I — built the Kailashanatha Temple, Ellora, the largest monolithic rock-cut temple
• Govinda III — the greatest; defeated both the Pratiharas and the Palas
Amoghavarsha — reign length and literary contribution?
A 64-year reign; wrote the Kavirajamarga, the earliest work on Kannada poetics.
He is often described as Ashoka-like in temperament.
Krishna III — achievement? And how did the dynasty end?
Defeated the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam (949).
Capital: Manyakheta. The dynasty was overthrown by Tailapa II (973), who founded the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
What did the Arab writer Sulaiman call the Rashtrakutas?
He called their king 'Balhara', and named the Indian Ocean 'Dariya-i-Hargand'.
Gurjara-Pratiharas
- The Gurjara-Pratiharas (~730–1036 AD), capital Kannauj; pratihara means door-keeper.
- Nagabhata I, the founder, repelled the Arabs; Mihira Bhoja (836–882), the greatest, was Adivaraha. PYQ UPSC 2022
- Rajashekhara, author of the Kavyamimamsa, was at Mahendrapala's court.
- Sulaiman (851) called the king Juzr (Mihir Bhoja) and praised his horses; Al-Masudi (915), author of Muruj-ul-Zahab, visited Mahipala I and called them Al-Gujar.
Check yourself
Gurjara-Pratiharas — dates, capital and meaning of 'Pratihara'?
~730–1036 AD; capital Kannauj.
'Pratihara' means door-keeper — from their claimed role as guardians.
Nagabhata I and Mihira Bhoja — what is each known for? PYQ UPSC 2022
• Nagabhata I — founder; repelled the Arab invasions (his successor Nagabhata II continued)
• Mihira Bhoja — 836–882; the greatest; title 'Adivaraha'
Which poet was at Mahendrapala's court, and what did he write?
Rajashekhara, author of the Kavyamimamsa.
What do the Arab accounts of Sulaiman and Al-Masudi say?
• Sulaiman (851) — called the Pratihara king 'Juzr' (Mihir Bhoja) and praised his 'finest horses'
• Al-Masudi (915) — visited Mahipala I; called the dynasty 'Al-Gujar'; wrote Muruj-ul-Zahab
Agnikula
- The Agnikula legend: four Rajput clans born from the fire lit by Vasishtha at Mount Abu: Pratihara, Chahamana (Chauhan), Chaulukya (Solanki), Paramara.
Check yourself
What is the Agnikula legend, and which four clans does it name?
4 Rajput clans born from fire, kindled by the sage Vasishtha at Mount Abu:
Pratihara, Chahamana (Chauhans), Chaulukya (Solankis), Paramara.
Palas
- Gopala (c. 750–770) was elected by the chiefs to end matsyanyaya, founding the Palas.
- Dharmapala (770–810) installed Chakrayudha at Kannauj; he founded Vikramashila (Bhagalpur, a centre of tantric Buddhism that shaped Tibet) and Somapuri (Paharpur, a vast cruciform complex), and revived Nalanda (10,000 students), later destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji (1193).
- Devapala took the Palas to their widest extent, beating the Hunas, Gurjaras and Dravidas; capital Munger. The Palas were the last great Buddhist patrons in India.
Check yourself
Gopala — how did he come to power and when?
750 AD; the founder of the Pala dynasty, elected by the chiefs to end Matsyanyaya (anarchy). He ruled c. 750–770 CE.
Dharmapala — dates and what did he do at Kannauj?
770–810 CE. He installed Chakrayudha at Kannauj, asserting Pala supremacy in the tripartite struggle.
Which institutions did Dharmapala found or revive?
• Vikramashila (Bhagalpur) — a centre of Tantric Buddhism that influenced Tibet
• Somapuri (Paharpur, Bangladesh) — a massive cruciform-plan complex
• Revived Nalanda (10,000 students), later destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji (1193)
Devapala — extent of his power? And what marked the Palas' religious role?
He achieved the maximum Pala extent, defeating the Hunas, Gurjaras and Dravidas.
Capital: Munger. The Palas were the last great Buddhist patrons in India.
Sena Dynasty
- The Senas (1070–1230 AD) followed the Palas in Bengal; Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda, was at Lakshmana Sena's court; Khalji defeated them in 1203.
Check yourself
Sena dynasty — dates, whom did they succeed, and how did they end?
1070–1230 AD; succeeded the Palas in Bengal.
Lakshmana Sena had Jayadeva (author of the Gita Govinda) at his court.
Defeated by Khalji in 1203.
Rajputs
- The Rajputs (rajputra, “son of a king”) rose by the 12th century with agrarian expansion; tradition counts 36 clans.
Check yourself
When did the Rajputs emerge, what does 'Rajputra' mean, and how many clans?
Emerged in the 12th century (with roots earlier).
'Rajputra' = son of a king; the rise is linked to agrarian expansion.
Tradition names 36 clans.
Rajput Dynasties
- Chahamanas: Ajmer, Prithviraj III. Chandellas: Khajuraho, Dhanga the temple builder. Paramaras: Dhar, Bhoja.
- Chaulukyas (Solankis): Gujarat. Gahadavalas: Kannauj, Jaichand. Tomaras: Dhillika (Delhi), Lal Kot, with Anangpala and Surajpala (Surajkund).
Check yourself
Match: Chahamanas, Chandellas, Paramaras — capitals and famous rulers.
• Chahamanas — Ajmer; Prithviraj III
• Chandellas — Khajuraho; Dhanga, the temple builder
• Paramaras — Dhar; Bhoja
Match: Chaulukyas/Solankis, Gahadavalas, Tomaras — regions and famous rulers.
• Chaulukyas / Solankis — Gujarat
• Gahadavalas — Kannauj; Jaichand
• Tomaras — Dhillika (Delhi); Lal Kot. Associated names: Anangpala and Surajpala (Surajkund)
Battles of Tarain
- First Tarain (1191): Prithviraj III beat Muhammad of Ghor. Second Tarain (1192): Muhammad won and Prithviraj was killed, the end of ancient India.
- Chandawar (1194): Jaichand Gahadavala was killed and Kannauj fell.
Check yourself
First Battle of Tarain — year and outcome?
1191 — Prithviraj III defeated Muhammad of Ghor.
Second Battle of Tarain — year, outcome and significance?
1192 — Muhammad of Ghor won; Prithviraj was killed.
This marks the end of ancient India.
Battle of Chandawar — year, who was killed and what fell?
1194 — Jaichand Gahadavala was killed and Kannauj fell.
Rajputs
- The Rajputs lost to the Turks through disunity, slow elephants against fast Turkish cavalry, a rigid caste order limiting recruits, and no intelligence network.
Check yourself
Why did the Rajputs lose to the Turks?
• No unity among clans
• Slow elephants against fast Turkish cavalry
• A rigid caste system limiting recruitment
• No intelligence network
Chola Rulers
- Vijayalaya (850), a Pallava feudatory, took Tanjore and founded the Cholas; Parantaka I (Maduraikonda) lost at Takkolam (949) to the Rashtrakutas.
- Rajaraja I (985–1014) took northern Sri Lanka and the Maldives, built the Brihadishvara (Rajarajeshwara) temple at Thanjavur, and ordered a great land survey.
- Rajendra I (1014–1044), Gangaikondachola, took all of Sri Lanka and sent a fleet to Srivijaya (1025). PYQ UPSC 2025 · 2003 · 2001
- Kulottunga I, Sungam Tavirtta Cholan (“abolisher of tolls”), sent trade missions to China.
Check yourself
Vijayalaya and Parantaka I — what is each known for?
• Vijayalaya (850) — founder; captured Tanjore as a Pallava feudatory
• Parantaka I — title Maduraikonda; lost at Takkolam (949) to the Rashtrakutas
Rajaraja I — dates, conquests and his great temple?
985–1014. Conquered northern Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
Built the Brihadishvara (Rajarajeshwara) Temple at Thanjavur and ordered a major land survey (Ulakalanda Perumal).
Rajendra I — dates, title and naval expedition? PYQ UPSC 2025 · 2003 · 2001
1014–1044; title Gangaikondachola.
Conquered the entire Sri Lanka and sent a naval expedition to Srivijaya (1025).
Kulottunga I — his epithet and foreign policy?
Called Sungam Tavirtta Cholan — the customs abolisher.
Sent trade missions to China.
Chola Administration
- Divisions, largest first: mandalam (province) → valanadu → nadu (district) → kurram.
Check yourself
Name the Chola administrative divisions from largest to smallest.
Mandalam (province) → Valanadu (division) → Nadu (district) → Kurram (block)
Chola Revenue
- Kadamai: land revenue of 40–50%. Vetti (kudimai): forced labour.
Check yourself
What was Kadamai, and what were Vetti/Kudimai?
• Kadamai — the land revenue, 40–50%
• Vetti / Kudimai — forced labour
Chola Local Government
- Sabha: the Brahmana assembly of brahmadeya villages, members chosen by lot. Ur: non-Brahmana landowners. Nadu: the district assembly. Nagaram: merchants. PYQ UPSC 1993
- The Uttaramerur inscription sets out the election, qualifications and disqualifications of sabha members: Chola village democracy.
- Variyams: committees for the tank, garden, gold, justice and so on.
Check yourself
Distinguish Sabha, Ur, Nadu and Nagaram. PYQ UPSC 1993
• Sabha — Brahmana assembly of brahmadeya villages; members elected by lot
• Ur — assembly of non-Brahmana landowners
• Nadu — district assembly (Nattar)
• Nagaram — merchants' assembly (Nagarattar)
What does the Uttaramerur inscription record? PYQ UPSC 1993
The election process, qualifications and disqualifications for sabha members — the classic evidence for Chola village democracy.
The Chola age is most famous for its village assemblies — a model of grassroots democracy.
What were Variyams?
Committees of the village assembly, each handling a function — tank, garden, gold, justice — producing a structured form of local democracy.
Chola Bronzes
- Chola bronzes were cast by the lost-wax (cire perdue) method, solid, not hollow.
Check yourself
By what technique were Chola bronzes made, and how do they differ from northern bronzes?
The lost-wax (cire perdue) technique.
Southern bronzes were solid, not hollow.
Nataraja
- The Nataraja dances Shiva's Ananda Tandava; his four hands: the drum (creation), flame (destruction), abhaya (protection) and gaja-hasta (liberation). PYQ UPSC 1995
- He dances on Muyalaka (Apasmara), the dwarf of ignorance, within a ring of flames (prabhamandala), the Ganga in his hair; the form first appeared under the Pallavas (7th–9th century).
Check yourself
What dance does the Nataraja perform, and what do his four hands hold or signify? PYQ UPSC 1995
Shiva's Ananda Tandava — the dance of bliss.
4 hands: Drum (creation) + Flame (destruction) + Abhaya (protection) + Gaja-hasta (liberation).
What does Nataraja dance upon, and what surrounds him?
He dances on Muyalaka (Apasmara) — the dwarf of ignorance.
Surrounded by the prabhamandala (rim of flames), with the Ganga in his locks.
The form first appeared in the Pallava period (7th–9th cen. AD).
Later Chalukyas
- The Later Chalukyas of Kalyani, founded by Tailapa II: Vikramaditya VI began the Chalukya-Vikrama era (1076) and had Vijnaneshvara, author of the Mitakshara, at court.
Check yourself
Later Chalukyas of Kalyani — founder, capital and famous ruler?
Founder Tailapa II; capital Kalyani.
Vikramaditya VI founded the Chalukya-Vikrama Era (1076) and had Vijnaneshvara (author of the Mitakshara) at his court.
Hoysalas
- The Hoysalas, capital Dwarasamudra (Halebid), built in chlorite schist (soapstone); Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakeshava temple at Belur. PYQ UPSC 2001
Check yourself
Hoysalas — capital, temple material and famous ruler? PYQ UPSC 2001
Capital Dwarasamudra (Halebid); temples in chlorite schist (soapstone).
Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakeshava temple at Belur.
Key sites: Halebid and Belur.
Kakatiyas and Yadavas
- Kakatiyas: Warangal, Queen Rudramadevi, the port Motupalli, the title raya-gaja-kesari (UPSC 2017). Yadavas: Devagiri (Maharashtra), founded by Bhillama V. PYQ UPSC 2017
Check yourself
Kakatiyas and Yadavas — capitals and famous rulers?
• Kakatiyas — Warangal; Queen Rudramadevi; seaport Motupalli; title raya-gaja-kesari (UPSC 2017)
• Yadavas — Devagiri, Maharashtra; founded by Bhillama V
Later Deccan Dynasties
- The Hoysalas, Gahadavalas, Kakatiyas and Yadavas rose in the 11th–12th centuries. PYQ UPSC 2023
Check yourself
Were the Hoysalas, Gahadavalas, Kakatiyas or Yadavas established in the early 8th century? PYQ UPSC 2023
NONE of them — all four were established much later (11th–12th centuries).
Temple Styles
- Nagara (north): a curving shikhara crowned by amalaka and kalasha, no boundary wall, a cruciform plan, garbhagriha and mandapa, smaller shikharas clustered round the main tower. PYQ UPSC 2012
- Dravida (south): a stepped pyramidal vimana crowned by a stupika, a walled compound with towering gopurams, and a tank inside.
- Vesara (Deccan): a hybrid, low and rounded, on star-shaped or circular plans, richly carved, with lathe-turned pillars and soapstone carving.
Check yourself
Nagara style — region, shape and key features? PYQ UPSC 2012
North India.
Shape: curvilinear shikhara, topped by amalaka + kalasha.
Features: no boundary wall; cruciform plan; garbhagriha + mandapa; sub-shikharas cluster around the main tower.
Dravida style — region, shape and key features? PYQ UPSC 2012
South India.
Shape: pyramidal vimana (stepped tiers), topped by a stupika.
Features: enclosed compound wall; towering gopurams; vimana over the sanctum; a tank inside the complex.
Vesara style — region, shape and key features? PYQ UPSC 2012
Deccan.
Shape: a hybrid — a low, rounded superstructure mixing Nagara + Dravida.
Features: star-shaped / circular plans; rich sculptural decoration; lathe-turned pillars; soapstone carving.
Nagara Examples
- Nagara: Khajuraho (Chandellas; Kandariya Mahadeo the largest; UNESCO); Konark Sun temple, Lingaraja (Bhubaneswar), Modhera Sun temple.
- The Kailashanatha at Ellora (Krishna I, Rashtrakuta), the largest monolithic rock-cut temple, has a Dravida superstructure.
Check yourself
Name the key Nagara-style temples.
• Khajuraho (Chandellas) — Kandariya Mahadeo is the largest; famous erotic sculptures; UNESCO
• Kailashanatha, Ellora — by Krishna I (Rashtrakuta); largest monolithic rock-cut temple, with a Dravida superstructure
• Konark Sun Temple, Lingaraja (Bhubaneswar), Modhera Sun Temple
Dravida Examples
- Dravida: the Brihadishvara (Thanjavur, 1010, Rajaraja I), with its famous vimana and a huge Nandi from one stone; the Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram); Meenakshi (Madurai); Panamalai (Pallava). PYQ UPSC 1997
Check yourself
Name the key Dravida-style temples.
• Brihadishvara (Tanjavur, 1010) — by Rajaraja I; famous vimana, huge Nandi from a single stone
• Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram)
• Meenakshi (Madurai)
• Panamalai (Pallava) (UPSC 1997)
Vesara Examples
- Vesara: the Hoysaleshvara (Halebid), the greatest Hoysala temple, to Shiva, with twin Nandis; the star-shaped Keshava (Somnathpur); the Chennakeshava (Belur, Vishnuvardhana); and Aihole, Pattadakal and Badami (Chalukya).
Check yourself
Name the key Vesara-style temples.
• Hoysaleshvara (Halebid) — the greatest Hoysala temple; dedicated to Shiva; twin Nandis
• Keshava (Somnathpur) — the high point; star-shaped
• Chennakeshava (Belur) — by Vishnuvardhana
• Aihole, Pattadakal, Badami (Chalukya)
Jain Monuments
- Gommateshwara (983 AD, by Chamundaraya, a Western Ganga minister) at Shravanabelagola: a monolith of Bahubali, son of the first Tirthankara, in the kayotsarga pose; Mahamastakabhisheka every 12 years. PYQ UPSC 1994
- The Dilwara temples (Mount Abu): five Jain temples of carved white marble, among them Vimal Vasahi (1031, Vimal Shah) and Luna Vasahi (1230, the brothers Vastupal and Tejpal).
Check yourself
Gommateshwara — who built it, when, and whom does it depict? PYQ UPSC 1994
Built by Chamundaraya (983 AD), a minister of the Western Ganga king, at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka.
A monolith of Bahubali, son of the 1st Tirthankara — ⚠️ Bahubali is NOT a Tirthankara at all. He stands in the Kayotsarga pose.
Mahamastakabhisheka every 12 years.
Dilwara Temples — location, composition and the two main temples?
A group of 5 Jain temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan, with intricate white marble carvings.
• Vimal Vasahi (1031) — built by Vimal Shah
• Luna Vasahi (1230) — built by the brothers Vastupal and Tejpal
Economy
- Farming spread with irrigation (tanks, the araghatta or Persian wheel) and cash crops; brahmadeya, devadana and agrahara grants made the grantees feudal intermediaries.
Check yourself
What marked agrarian expansion in early medieval India?
Irrigation — tanks and the araghatta (Persian wheel) — and the growth of cash crops.
Land grants (Brahmadeya, Devadana, Agrahara) turned recipients into feudal intermediaries.
Merchant Guilds
- Manigramam: a Tamil merchant guild (UPSC 1997). Ayyavole, the “Five Hundred”, from Aihole. Anjuvannam: foreign merchants on the Kerala coast. Guilds followed bananju-dharma, merchant law. PYQ UPSC 1997
Check yourself
Manigramam, Ayyavole and Anjuvannam — identify each.
• Manigramam — a Tamil merchant guild (UPSC 1997)
• Ayyavole — the 'Five Hundred', from Aihole, Karnataka
• Anjuvannam — a foreign merchants' guild on the Kerala coast
Guilds followed bananju-dharma (merchant law).
Shankara
- Shankara (8th–9th century) founded Advaita Vedanta (Brahman is nirguna, without attributes), the Dashanami order and the mathas.
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Shankara — dates, school, view of Brahman and monastic order?
8th–9th cen. AD; founded Advaita Vedanta.
Brahman is nirguna — the attributeless ultimate reality.
Founded the Dashanami order and the mathas.
Bhakti Saints
- The 63 Nayanars (Shaiva), whose hymns form the Tevaram; the 12 Alvars (Vaishnava), whose Naalayira Divya Prabandham, compiled by Nathamuni, is the Tamil Veda.
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Nayanars and Alvars — numbers, affiliation and hymn collections?
• Nayanars — 63 Shaiva saints; hymns = Tevaram
• Alvars — 12 Vaishnava saints; hymns = Naalayira Divya Prabandham, compiled by Nathamuni and called the Tamil Veda
Bhakti Literature
- The Gita Govinda of Jayadeva, on Radha and Krishna, was written at Lakshmana Sena's court; the Bhagavata Purana comes from the south, 9th–10th century.
Check yourself
Gita Govinda and Bhagavata Purana — authors, dates and themes?
• Gita Govinda — by Jayadeva, on Radha–Krishna; composed at the Sena court of Lakshmana Sena
• Bhagavata Purana — 9th–10th cen. AD, from the South
Vajrayana
- Vajrayana at the Pala centres: the mantra Om mani padme hum, and Tara, the most popular deity.
Check yourself
What are the key features of Vajrayana at Pala centres?
The mantra 'Om mani padme hum', and the goddess Tara as the most popular deity.
Arab Invasions
- The first Arab naval raid: 637 AD, on Thana near Mumbai.
- Muhammad bin Qasim (711–712) defeated Dahir and annexed Multan (source: the Chachnama); the Arabs stayed confined to Sindh, Nagabhata I blocking them.
Check yourself
When was the first Arab naval expedition to India, and where?
637 AD — to Thana, near Mumbai.
Muhammad bin Qasim — dates, whom did he defeat, and what did he annex?
711–712. Defeated Dahir and annexed Multan.
Source: the Chachnama.
The Arabs remained limited to Sindh; Nagabhata I repelled further advances.
Mahmud of Ghazni
- Mahmud of Ghazni made 17 raids (1000–1027), for plunder, not conquest; in 1025 he looted Somnath (Gujarat).
- Al-Biruni came with him and wrote the Kitab-ul-Hind on Indian society and science.
Check yourself
Mahmud of Ghazni — how many raids, over what period, and what motivated him?
17 raids, 1000–1027, motivated by plunder, not conquest.
What happened in 1025, and who accompanied Mahmud?
1025 — the raid on the Somnath Temple (Gujarat), which was looted of enormous wealth.
Al-Biruni accompanied him and wrote the Kitab-ul-Hind on Indian society and science.
Literary Sources
- Rajatarangini by Kalhana, a chronicle of Kashmir, the first historical writing in India; Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai.
- Ramacharita by Sandhyakaranandin, in shlesha (double meaning): each verse tells both the Ramayana and the story of the Pala king Ramapala.
Check yourself
Rajatarangini and Prithviraj Raso — authors and significance?
• Rajatarangini — by Kalhana; a chronicle of Kashmir and the first historical writing in India
• Prithviraj Raso — by Chand Bardai
Ramacharita — author and what is unusual about it?
By Sandhyakaranandin; written in the double-meaning (Shlesha) style — each verse narrates both the Ramayana and the story of the Pala king Ramapala.
Mitakshara
- The Mitakshara of Vijnaneshvara (11th–12th century), a commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti, at Vikramaditya VI's court. PYQ UPSC 2021
- Under it sons hold rights in property from birth, in the father's lifetime; it prevailed in most of India except Bengal.
Check yourself
Mitakshara — author, date, on what text, and at whose court? PYQ UPSC 2021
By Vijnaneshvara, 11th–12th cen.; a commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti.
Written at the court of Vikramaditya VI (Western Chalukya).
What is the Mitakshara rule on inheritance, and where did it prevail?
Sons get property rights during their father's lifetime — coparcenary by birth.
It prevailed in most of India except Bengal.
Dayabhaga
- The Dayabhaga of Jimutavahana (12th century), a digest of inheritance law (he also wrote the Vyavaharamatrika, on procedure). PYQ UPSC 2021
- Under it sons inherit only after the father's death; it prevailed in Bengal.
Check yourself
Dayabhaga — author, date, subject and other work? PYQ UPSC 2021
By Jimutavahana, 12th cen.; a digest of laws on inheritance.
He also wrote the Vyavaharamatrika (procedural law).
What is the Dayabhaga rule on inheritance, and where did it prevail?
Sons get property rights only after the father's death.
It prevailed in Bengal.
Literary Sources
- Kamba Ramayanam by Kamban: the Tamil Ramayana. Krishi-Parashara: an agricultural text from Bengal.
Check yourself
Kamba Ramayanam and Krishi-Parashara — authors and nature?
• Kamba Ramayanam — by Kamban; the Tamil Ramayana
• Krishi-Parashara — an agricultural text from Bengal
All 12 chapters of Ancient History notes
- Sources of Ancient Indian History23 sections
- Pre-Historic India12 sections
- Indus Valley Civilization27 sections
- Vedic Period33 sections
- Mahajanapadas & Rise of Magadha15 sections
- Buddhism31 sections
- Jainism25 sections
- Mauryan Empire41 sections
- Post-Mauryan Period34 sections
- Gupta Empire31 sections
- Post-Gupta & Harsha's Era32 sections
- Early Medieval India38 sections