Mauryan Empire

By Kautilya / Chanakya / Vishnugupta.
Title means the 'Science of Material Gain' — the science of acquiring and protecting the earth; 15 books.
In it, artha ranks above dharma and kama.

Possibly multiple authors; final compilation around 250 CE, though the core is Mauryan.
⚠️ Note: Kautilya is not mentioned by Megasthenes or Patanjali.

By Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Seleucus at Chandragupta's court.
The original is lost; it survives in quotations by Strabo, Diodorus, Arrian, Pliny and Justin.

He claimed there was:
• No slavery — contradicted by the Arthashastra, which discusses dasas
• All land owned by the king
• No writing and no lending on interest

Pataliputra was surrounded by a wooden wall.
Megasthenes described 7 classes in Indian society.

By Vishakhadatta; written in the Gupta period.
Deals with Chandragupta's court intrigues — Chanakya's overthrow of the Nandas.
It calls Chandragupta Vrishala / Kulahina ('of low clan').

• Puranas — give king-lists; describe the Mauryas as Shudras
• Buddhist — Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Ashokavadana; link them to the Kshatriya Moriya clan
• Jain — Hemachandra's Parishishtaparvan; Chandragupta + Bhadrabahu

They are the most direct primary source for Mauryan history.
Deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.

Most: Prakrit language + Brahmi script (written left to right).
Exceptions:
• NW — Mansehra, Shahbazgarhi → Kharoshthi
• Shar-i-Kuna (Kandahar) → Greek–Aramaic bilingual
• Laghman + Taxila → Aramaic

Of Rudradaman, around 150 AD.
It proves Chandragupta's sway over Saurashtra.

It was begun under Chandragupta Maurya (by governor Pushyagupta) and completed under Ashoka, then repaired by Rudradaman.

• Kumhrar, Patna — the 80-pillared hall
• Bulandibagh — wooden palisade remains (fortification)
• Punch-marked coins and NBPW pottery

Dethroned Dhanananda with the help of Kautilya and occupied Pataliputra in 322 BC — expanding west to east.
Greek names: Sandrocottus / Androcottus; identified with Chandragupta by William Jones.

305 BC. Chandragupta defeated Seleucus and gained Herat, Kandahar, Baluchistan and Kabul.
In return he gave 500 elephants.

The Hindukush.
Megasthenes was sent as ambassador, 302–298 BC.

He became a Jain, went to Chandragiri Hill, Shravana Belgola with Bhadrabahu, and died by Sallekhana — the Jain ritual of fasting unto death.

Mamulanar (in the Akananuru) mentions Moriya chariots moving southward.
💡 Religions of the three kings: Chandragupta ≡ Jain, Bindusara ≡ Ajivika, Ashoka ≡ Buddhist.

298–273 BC.
Greek name: Amitrochates (from Amitraghata = 'slayer of foes').
He patronised the Ajivikas and is known for conquering the Deccan.

• Deimachus — from Antiochus I of Syria
• Dionysius — from Ptolemy II of Egypt

He asked Antiochus for wine, figs and a sophist (philosopher).
The reply: 'philosophers are not for sale'.

A 4-year interregnum; minister Radhagupta helped Ashoka; coronation in 269 BC.
Bindusara had wanted Susima to succeed; tradition says Ashoka killed 99 brothers.

• Devanampiya = 'beloved of the Gods' (UPSC 1995)
• Piyadasi = 'pleasant to look at' — used in most inscriptions

The Maski Minor Rock Edict (Karnataka).
The Gurjara inscription also contains his name.

• Kanaganahalli — inscribed 'Ranyo Ashoka'; the only stone portrait of Ashoka (UPSC 2019)
• Bhabru-Bairat — 'Piyadassi Raja Magadh'; the only edict identifying Ashoka as king of Magadha

261 BC — the 9th year after consecration.
150,000 deported, 100,000 slain.
It led to Ashoka's conversion to Dhamma.

Bherighosha → Dhammaghosha — from the drum of war to the drum of dharma.
The monk who influenced him: Upagupta.

It records '2.5 years as a Sakya' — i.e. as a lay follower (upasaka) before deepening his commitment.

• MRE 3 (Bhabru-Bairat) — recommends 6 Buddhist texts for study
• Schism Edict (Sanchi, Sarnath, Kaushambi) — warns against division in the sangha

• Convened the 3rd Buddhist Council at Pataliputra, under Moggaliputta Tissa
• Sent Mahinda and Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka as missionaries

• Rummindei Pillar — records Ashoka's visit to Lumbini; he made it bali-free and reduced bhaga to 1/8th
• Nigali Sagar — records that he doubled the stupa of Buddha Konagamana

No. It was inspired by Buddhist upasaka dhamma but NOT identical to Buddhism.
It was not the promotion of any particular sect, and its goal was Swarga (heaven), NOT Nirvana.

Ahimsa, compassion, liberality, truthfulness and purity, together with respect for elders, parents, slaves and servants.

'Whosoever praises his own sect or blames other sects... injures his own sect.'
It is the most frequently tested edict. Ashoka urged not mere tolerance but understanding of other sects' dhamma, and showed respect for both Brahmanas AND Shramanas.

He patronised the Ajivikas — dedicating the Barabar caves to them — despite being a Buddhist himself.

• Dhamma Mahamatras — new officials for spreading dhamma (RE 5, 13th year)
• Dhamma-yatras — replaced royal pleasure tours (RE 8)
• Inscriptions on stone, read aloud on full moon days
• Ban on animal sacrifice and certain festive gatherings (RE 1)

Victory through dhamma, not arms — his policy after Kalinga.
⚠️ But he was NOT an extreme pacifist: he retained Kalinga, kept his army, and warned the forest tribes.

• RE 1 — ban on animal sacrifices + certain festive gatherings
• RE 2 — social welfare measures (hospitals, wells, roads); mentions Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra, Keralaputra — ⚠️ Satavahana is NOT mentioned

• RE 3 — Pradeshika, Rajuka and Yukta (district-level officers) must go on tours every 5 years (UPSC 2025)
• RE 4 — courtesy to relatives and elders; consideration for animals; Bherighosha → Dhammaghosha

• RE 5 — Dhamma Mahamatras appointed (13 years after consecration)
• RE 6 — efficient administration; 'I am never content in exerting myself'
• RE 7 — need for tolerance among all religious sects

• RE 8 — Dhamma-yatras replace pleasure tours (vihara yatras)
• RE 9 — attack on meaningless ceremonies and rituals
• RE 10 — conquest through Dhamma, not war
• RE 11 — explanation of Dhamma-policy; 'the gift of Dhamma is the best of all gifts'

Records the Kalinga war: 150,000 deported, 100,000 slain.
It also mentions 5 Greek kings (which helps date Ashoka's reign) and South Indian kingdoms.

An inspiration to live a religious life — a concluding edict explaining why the edicts were engraved.

• Kalsi — Uttarakhand (⚠️ NOT Karnataka)
• Jaugada — Odisha (⚠️ NOT MP)

• Dhauli — Odisha
• Girnar — Gujarat
• Sopara — Maharashtra
• Yerragudi — Andhra Pradesh
• Sannati — Karnataka
• Mansehra + Shahbazgarhi — Pakistan, in Kharoshthi

7 Pillar Edicts.
• PE 2 — Dhamma = least sin, many virtuous deeds, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, purity
• PE 5 — lists inviolable animals; records that he released prisoners 25 times in 26 years

Originally from Haryana; moved to Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
It is the only pillar bearing all 7 Pillar Edicts.

From Kaushambi. It carries the Queen Karuvaki inscription — and, added centuries later, the Prayag Prashasti of Samudragupta.

Lauriya-Nandangarh, Lauriya-Araraj and Rampurva — all in Champaran, Bihar.

They are the earliest edicts and contain the personal history of Ashoka.
Chronology overall: Minor Rock Edicts (earliest) → Major Rock Edicts → Pillar Edicts (latest).

Maski (Karnataka) — first with the name 'Ashoka' (UPSC 1997)
Also Sasaram (Bihar), Rupnath (MP), and Brahmagiri, Siddapur, Nittur, Udegolam (Karnataka).

Jehanabad, Bihar; dedicated to the Ajivikas.
They are the oldest rock-cut caves in India; Lomash Rishi cave has the earliest chaitya / gavaksha arch.

By Ashoka's grandson Dasharatha, also dedicated to the Ajivikas.

• 2 Kalinga Rock Edicts — Dhauli + Jaugada; deal with the new administration after the Kalinga war
• 2 Tarai Pillar Edicts — Rummindei/Lumbini + Nigali Sagar (Nepal)

1. Svami — king
2. Amatya — ministers
3. Janapada — territory + people
4. Durga — fort
5. Kosha — treasury
6. Danda — army
7. Mitra — ally

• Samaharta → revenue collector (chief collector)
• Sannidhata → treasury keeper

• Akshapatala → accountant general
• Purohita → chief priest
• Senapati → military commander
• Dhamma Mahamatra → Ashoka's new post for Dhamma

• Mantri Parishad — small advisory council | Mantra Parishad — larger consultative body
• Sanstha — stationary spies | Sanchara — wandering spies
• Pativedakas — reporters / informers

• Taxila — North
• Ujjain — West
• Pataliputra — East + Centre
• Toshali — Kalinga
• Suvarnagiri — South
Each headed by a Kumara / Rashtrapala — royal princes as viceroys.

• Pradeshika → administration — head of the district
• Rajuka → revenue; also appointed by Ashoka to administer justice
• Yukta → subordinate revenue officer
• Sthanika → officer over 800 villages
• Stri-adhyaksha-mahamatras → tasked with women's welfare

• Gramika → village headman
• Gopa → officer over 5–10 villages (a Sangrahana)
• Gramavriddhas → village elders, advisory role

Kautilya's concentric model of states:
Vijigishu (the conqueror), ari (enemy), madhyama (neutral), udasina (indifferent).
Paired with Shad-gunya — the 6 foreign policies.

Bhaga = 1/6th of produce per the Arthashastra; Megasthenes says 1/4th.
Udaka-bhaga = the water rate for irrigation.

• Bali — general tax
• Kara — additional tax
• Shulka — customs / excise
State monopolies: mining, forests, salt, liquor, arms.

Punch-marked coins — panas (silver) and mashakas (copper).
Ports: Bharukachch + Supara (west); Tamralipti (east).

From Gorakhpur — the earliest royal order for famine relief, recording grain stores kept for emergencies.

• Sitadhyaksha — agriculture
• Panyadhyaksha — commerce
• Navaadhyaksha — ships
• Akaradhyaksha — mines
• Lohadhyaksha — metals

• Dasas — slaves (their existence contradicts Megasthenes' 'no slavery')
• Karmakara — wage workers
• Vishti — forced labour
• Ahitakas — debt-pledged workers

The 7 classes were economic, NOT varna — but hereditary and endogamous.
Women: divorce and remarriage allowed; some employed as the king's bodyguards and spies.

• Court art — Kumhrar palace, Ashokan pillars, Barabar caves, stupas
• Folk art — Yaksha of Parkham (near Mathura), Yakshini of Besanagar, Didarganj Yakshini, terracotta

Chunar sandstone — polished and monolithic.
They are standalone — ⚠️ NOT part of any structure, unlike Persian pillars which supported roofs.

No base → a smooth circular shaft → a bolt → a bell capital (inverted lotus) → an abacus → the crowning animal(s).

It is India's National Emblem, adopted on 26 January 1950.
Located at Sarnath — ⚠️ NOT Rajgir.
Its abacus carries bull, elephant, horse and lion, each separated by a dharmachakra.

• Barabar — the oldest rock-cut caves; Lomash Rishi has the earliest chaitya / gavaksha arch (UPSC 2013)
• Dhauli elephant (3rd cen. BC) — the earliest among Lingaraja, Mahabalipuram, Udayagiri (UPSC 2015)

Traditionally 84,000 stupas.
The Sanchi Great Stupa originally had a brick core, built by Ashoka (later encased in stone by the Sungas).

An 80-pillared hall, compared to Darius' Hall at Persepolis.
At nearby Bulandibagh, a wooden palisade was found.

The empire split. Among his successors, only Dasharatha issued inscriptions (the Nagarjuni caves).
The period also saw invasions by the Greeks.

Brihadratha, assassinated by his commander Pushyamitra Sunga (a Brahmana) in 185 BC.
The dynasty lasted 137 years (322–185 BC).

• Over-centralisation
• A pacific policy that weakened the army
• Brahmanical reaction
• Economic pressure of maintaining a vast bureaucracy